cognitive processes refer to all characteristics

Eysenck reviews the J shaped distribution of creative output and suggests that it results from the interactive product of cognitive ability, societal constraints and opportunities, and non-cognitive variables including confidence, non-conformity, and originality. Typical intellectual engagement is highly related to the 'Big 5' dimension of openness (Rocklin 1994) but differs somewhat at lower order components of both openness and typical intellectual engagement (Ackerman & Goff 1994).Īn innovative use of cognitive and non-cognitive variables in the study of creativity is proposed by H. Further clarifying the relationship between maximal and typical performance, Goff & Ackerman (1992) report that typical intellectual engagement, although independent of fluid intelligence, is correlated positively with crystallized intelligence. Non-cognitive measures and typical intellectual engagement become more important predictors over trials and maximal cognitive performance becomes less important (Ackerman, in press). The predictive relationship with performance outcome of cognitive and non-cognitive measures changes as people become more experienced with the task at hand.

Furthermore, cognitive tasks are direct behavioral measures whereas non-cognitive measures are typically based on self reports of average behaviors or of intentions (Brody 1994). Intelligence tests are meant to be maximal performance measures whereas most non-cognitive scales are measures of typical behavior. Not only do cognitive and non-cognitive measures differ in content, but they also differ in typicality. The distinction between cognitive and affective components of personality is both clarified and muddied by the labels given to measures in these two domains: tests of intellectual ability and tests of personality.Īckerman and Kanfer and their colleagues have attempted tointegrate individual differences in cognitive and non-cognitive function in applied settings. Others include both cognitive abilities and temperamental traits as part of personality structure, whereas still others discuss personality and intelligence as separate domains but routinely study both.

The cognitive/non-cognitive distinction runs throughout the field and some personality theorists specifically rule out cognitive ability as an area of study. The first dimension distinguishes analyses of intellectual abilities from those of non-cognitive variables associated with affective reactions and behavior. causal-explanation.Ĭognitive abilities versus affective-temperamental traits affective-temperamental and descriptive vs. Just as personality theories can be organized in terms of their level of explanation and level of generality, so can studies of individual differences be further organized along two dimensions: cognitive vs. Indeed, so much work has been done that to some the field of personality is the study of individual differences (A. In a tradition strongly associated with prediction and selection (Kanfer et al in press), the study of individual differences in personality represents the greatest amount of personality research.

By changing their emphases, both sides have made theoretical advances by better understanding their limits. Debates about the relative importance of situational versus individual causes of consistencies and differences dominated a disproportionate amount of the literature of the 1970's and 1980's but became less virulent as both sides developed more tolerance, became exhausted, or developed a richer understanding of the underlying issues. The utility of using individual differences in one situation to predict individual differences in another situation, however, has been hotly contested. Similarities based on linguistic and cultural background have never been denied. That people who share a similar upbringing are more similar than those who do not is obvious. Prepared as a chapter for the Annual Review of Psychology, 1995.įor more information on personality theory and research, go to the Personality Project SOME PEOPLE ARE THE SAME: THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES

Cognitive processes refer to all characteristics